New York City

NEW YORK (CITY), the largest city of New York state, U.S.A., situated at the junction of the Hudson river, here called the North river, with the narrow East river (actually a strait connecting Long Island Sound with the Upper Bay), and between Long Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean. It is composed of five boroughs: the Borough of the Bronx on the south-easternmost part of the mainland of New York state; the Borough of Manhattan on Manhattan Island (including also other small islands') immediately S. and S.W. of the Bronx, and bounded on the W. by the North river, on the E. by the East river, and on the S. by New York Bay; the Borough of Richmond (Staten Island, q.v.), the southernmost and westernmost part of the city; and on the western end of Long Island, the Borough of Brooklyn, and, N. of it, the Borough of Queens. The city hall, in the southern part of Manhattan Island, is in lat. 40° 4 2 ' 43 N. and long. 74° o' 3" W. The greatest width of the city E. and W. is 16 m., and the greatest length N. and S. is 32 m.; its area is about 326.97 sq. M. (285.72 sq. m. more than in 1890), of which Manhattan Borough constitutes nearly 21.93 sq. m., the Borough of the Bronx about 41.7 sq. m., the Borough of Queens about 129.5 sq. m., the Borough of Brooklyn 77.6 sq. m., and the Borough of Richmond 55.2 sq. m. 2 The total waterfront of the city is 341.22 m., and much of it, especially on the lower part of Manhattan, is made ground.

New York harbour is one of the most beautiful, largest and best of the world's great ports. Over the bar (Sandy Hook), about 20 m. S. of the S. end of/Manhattan Island, is the " Main Ship Bayside-Gedney channel," woo ft. wide and 30 ft. deep. By 1909 the;Federal government had completed 72 m. of the Ambrose channel farther to the E. and 49 ft. deep, and 950 -1600 ft. wide (2200 ft. is the projected width). 3 .` A third 1 The more important of these small islands are: Blackwell's (about 120 acres) in the East river, Ward's N. of Blackwell's, and Randall's N. of Ward's, separated from it by Little Hell Gate, and in the mouth of the Harlem river; in the Upper Bay, Governor's Island (originally 65 acres; enlarged by the addition of tot acres to the southwest), a U.S. military reservation, about 1000 yds. S. of the Battery, the southernmost point of Manhattan Island; Bedloe's Island (sometimes called Liberty Island from the Bartholdi statue on it of " Liberty Enlightening the World "), with an area of 132 acres, lying 2 m. S.W. of the Battery; and Ellis Island, 12 m. W.S.W. of the Battery, occupied by the Federal government as a landing-place for immigrants. In the Lower Bay, and a part of the Borough of Richmond, are the artificial islands, Swinburne (18661870; 8 m. S. of the Battery) and Hoffman (1868-1873; 7 m. S. of the Battery), constructed for quarantine stations.

Manhattan and Bronx boroughs compose New York county; the counties of Queens and Richmond are coterminous respectively with the boroughs of those names; Brooklyn Borough is coextensive with Kings county.

The narrowness of the channel makes the tidal scour more effective, and it was little filled in even when sewage and garbage was dumped in the Bay itself. The river carries little silt and leaves most of it well above the harbour. The natural excellence of the harbour may be inferred from the following figures: in1895-1903the Federal Cadwallader Colden (Acting) Sir Henry Moore.. Cadwallader Colden (Acting). John Murray, earl of Dunmore .

William Tryon Transition. Provincial Congress State. George Clinton John Jay .

George Clinton Morgan Lewis Daniel D. Tompkins. John Taylor (Acting). De Witt Clinton .

Joseph Christopher Yates De Witt Clinton .

Nathaniel Pitcher (Acting) Martin Van Buren Enos Thompson Throop (Acting) Enos Thompson Throop William Learned Marcy William Henry Seward William C. Bouck Silas Wright .

John Young Hamilton Fish .

Washington Hunt Horatio Seymour Myron Holley Clark John Alsop King. Edwin Dennison Morgan Horatio Seymour. Reuben Eaton Fenton John Thompson Hoffman John Adams Dix. Samuel Jones Tilden. Lucius Robinson Alonzo Barton Cornell Grover Cleveland David Bennett Hill (Acting) David Bennett Hill. Roswell Pettibone Flower. Levi Parsons Morton. Frank Swett Black. Theodore Roosevelt. Benjamin Barker Odell Frank Wayland Higgins. Charles Evans Hughes Horace White .

John A. Dix. .

. 1763-1765.1765-1769.1769-1770.1770-1771. 1771-1776 1776-1777Dem01crat Whig/ Democrat Whig Democrat1777-1795Anti-Federalist 1 7951801 Federalist1801-1804Dem.-Repub.1804-18071807-1817 18171817-18231823-18251825-18281828-1829 18291829-18311831-18331833-18391839-18431843-18451845-18471847-18491849-18511851-18537,1853-1855Democrat1855-1857Whig-Repub.

1857-1859 Republican1859-18631863-1865 Democrat1865-1869Republican1869-1873Democrat 1873-1875 Republican 1875-1877 Democrat 1877-1880 „1880-1883Republican 1883-1885 Democrat 1885-1886 1886-1892.1892-18951895-1897 Republican.1897-18991899 -19011901-19051905-19071907-19101910 1911 channel, the South and Swash, is used by coasting vessels drawing about 20 ft. The harbour is divided into three parts: the Lower Bay, the Upper Bay and the North and East rivers. The Lower Bay (about 88 sq. m.) of which Raritan Bay on the S.W., Sandy Hook Bay on the S.E., and Gravesend Bay on the N.E. form parts, and to which the channels mentioned afford entrance from the ocean, has Staten Island to the W. and N., Brooklyn to the N. and E., and the New Jersey shore to the S. and W. The Upper Bay has an area of 14 sq. m., is the immediate embouchure of the North and the East river, is connected with the Lower Bay by the Narrows (minimum width I m.) and with Newark Bay to the W. by Kill Van Kull, immediately N. of Staten Island, and, except for these four narrow water-ways, is enclosed by land. The North river (maximum depth, 60 ft.) is here about I m. wide and the East river (maximum depth more than loo ft.; in Hell Gate channel about zoo ft.) is about 4 m. wide and, from the Battery to Throg's Neck and Willett's Point, where Long Island Sound proper begins, about 20 m. long. The north-east entrance to the harbour, from Long Island Sound by the East river, used principally by New England coasting vessels (especially coal barges), was made navigable for vessels of 25-27 ft. draft by the Federal government, which in1870-1876and in 1885 widened and deepened the formerly dangerous narrows and removed the reefs of Hell Gate, between Manhattan Island (E. 88th Street), Blackwell's Island, Astoria (on the Long Island shore), and Ward's Island. The third great entry and commercial feeder to the harbour is the North river, by which the great inland water-borne traffic of the Hudson river and the Erie Canal is brought to the port of New York. On the North river are the piers of the transatlantic steamship companies, part of them on the New Jersey side at Hoboken. The coastwise trade with New England, especially through Long Island Sound, is largely from the East river, to which a part of the Hudson river traffic makes its way by the Harlem river. The Harlem is a place of anchorage for small craft.

The narrow approaches to the harbour from the ocean and from Long Island Sound make its fortification easy. On Sandy Hook, less than 8 m. from the nearest points of Rockaway Beach and Coney Island on the other side of the entrance, is Fort Hancock, established as a military reservation (1366 acres) in 1892; it received its present name in 1895, and has an artillery garrison. Between the lower and upper bays, on the Narrows, are Fort Wadsworth (1827; named in honour of General James S. Wadsworth (1807-1864), killed in the battle of the Wilderness), on the Staten Island side, a reservation of 230 acres, including Fort Tompkins, on higher ground than Fort Wadsworth proper, and, across the Narrows, on the Long Island shore, Fort Hamilton (1831), with a reservation of 167 acres. Older fortifications are Fort Lafayette (1807; called Fort Diamond until 1823), between Forts Hamilton and Wadsworth on an artificial island, now used to store ordnance and supplies, and Fort Columbus (1806), South Battery (1812) and Castle Williams (built in 1811 by Jonathan Williams (1750-1815), who planned all the earlier fortifications of New York harbour; it is now a military prison), all on Governor's Island, where are important barracks and the New York arsenal of the Ordnance Department. The north-eastern approach to the harbour, at the entrance to Long Island Sound, is protected by fortifications, Fort Totten, at Willett's Point (1862), and directly across from this battery by Fort Schuyler (1826; post established 1856) with a reservation of 52 acres on Throg's Neck.

Geology

Manhattan Island 1 (13 1 m. long; maximum width - at 14th Street-24 m.; average width about 2 m.) is a "group of gneissoid islands separated. by low levels slightly elevated above tide and filled with drift and alluvium " (L. D. Gale in W. W. Mather's Geology of New York, 1843), with a steep west wall from Manhattanville (125th Street W. of 8th Avenue) S. beyond 81st Street, and a much steeper east wall. Upon its first occupation by the Dutch the island was rough and rocky with brooks, ponds, marshes and several expenses for important harbour improvements, principally dredging, were $1,035,300 for New York, $2,710,000 (exclusive of $1,185,000 for the Delaware Breakwater) for Philadelphia, $1,501,169 for Boston, $1,404,845 for New Orleans, and $470,000 for Baltimore.

1 See Wm. H. Hobbs, Configuration of the Rock Floor of Greater New York (Washington, 1905), Bulletin 270 of the U.S. Geological Survey, with an excellent summary of the earlier literature. The study of the underlying rock of Manhattan Island and its vicinity has been stimulated by the great engineering and building enterprises in the city limits.

swamps.' Superficially the island may be divided into: an area of drift, S. of 21st Street on the East river, of 13th street on Broadway and of 31st Street on the North river; a second, narrow area of drift running from Hell Gate N.W.to Manhattanville in a line parallel to the Harlem; a limestone (Inwood limestone) area on the Harlem from its mouth to the sharp turn in its course; a second and smaller limestone area on the Spuyten Duyvil in the north-westernmost part of the island; and the remainder areas of gneiss, the larger part being in two great " islands," one between the line of E. 21 st Street, 13th Street and W. 31st Street, already mentioned, and a line from Hell Gate to Manhattanville, and the other nearly joining the first at Manhattanville and covering all the narrow N.W. part of Manhattan Island except the second limestone area on the Spuyten Duyvil. These two gneiss areas have a southerly tilt; they are named respectively Washington and Morningside Heights. In all these areas, except the limestone, the underlying rock is what is styled Manhattan schist (see U.S. Geologic Atlas, N. Y. City, folio No. 83). The waterfront of Manhattan does not correspond in direction with limestone belts, but is probably due to lines of fracture (see W. H. Hobbs, in Bulletin, Geological Society of America, xvi. 151-182).

The Borough of the Bronx is made of high N.E. and S.W. ridges, sloping E. to the lower shores of Long Island Sound; and the Boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens form part of the great terminal moraine. Low serpentine hills (300-380 ft.), with a N.E. and S.W. trend, occupy the central part of the northern end of Staten Island; W. of this is Jura-Trias formation, crossed in its centre by a narrow strip of igneous dike rock; the E. and S. part of the island is Cretaceous. Yellow gravel is one of the many evidences of glacial drift; but the S.E. part of the island was not encroached upon by the moraine.

Climate

A combination of marine and continental influences produces a humid climate subject to sudden changes of temperature. The temperature, however, rises above 90° F. only six days in a year on the average; it rarely falls below zero; and in a period of thirtyeight years, from 1871 to 1908, extremes ranged between 100°, in September 1881, and - 6°, in February 1899. The mean winter temperature (December, January and February) is 32°; the mean summer temperature (June, July and August) is 72°; and the mean annual temperature is 52°. The average monthly rainfall ranges from 3.2 in. in May to 4.5 in. in July and in August, and the mean annual precipitation is 44.8 in. The average annual fall of snow amounts to 37 in., of which 11.5 in. falls in February, 8.7 in. in January and 8.2 in. in March. The average number of hours of sunshine ranges from 150 in November to 271 in June. The prevailing winds are N.W., except in June when they are S.W.

Streets

In the downtown portion of Manhattan Island, a strip about 2 m. long, some streets follow the irregular water-fronts and others cross these; and on the west side this irregularity extends farther N., in the former Greenwich village (W. and N.W. of Washington Square), where West 4th Street, running N.W., crosses West 12th Street, running S.W. north of Houston Street, then North Street, the northernmost limit of the occupied city; in 1807 a commission laid out the island into streets, which were numbered from S. to N. and were called East and West, as they were E. or W. of Broadway, below 8th Street, and of Fifth Avenue, above 8th, and into avenues, which were numbered 3 from E. to W., Twelfth Avenue being on the North river waterfront. East of First Avenue in a bulge of the Island S. of 23rd Street four additional avenues were named A, B, C, and D, Avenue A being one block E. of First Avenue. Afterwards Madison Avenue was laid out midway between Fourth and Fifth Avenues, N. from 23rd Street, and Lexington Avenue, midway between Third and Fourth Avenues, N. from 21st Street. The most important of the avenues is Broadway, an unfortunately narrow street in the busy downtown part of its course. From Bowling Green, immediately N. of the Battery, it goes in a straight line (E. of N.) for about 22 m. to loth Street; then bears off to the W. It is called the Boulevard from 78th Street to 162nd Street in its course between Amsterdam Avenue and West End (or Eleventh) Avenue (to 104th Street), and then as a continuation of West End Avenue; and thence to the Yonkers city line is called Kingsbridge Road. The monotonous regularity of the rectangular street plan of Manhattan above 14th Street is partly redeemed by this westward trend of Broadway, the only 2 See a paper, " Old Wells and Water-Courses on the Island of Manhattan," by George Everett Hill and George E. Waring, Jr., in Historic New York: the First Series of the Half Moon Papers (New York, 1899).

3 In the Borough of the Bronx the system of numbered avenues no longer holds, but the cross streets are numbered consecutively, W. 262nd Street being immediately S. of the Yonkers line and E. 242nd and 243rd immediately S. of the Mt. Vernon boundary.

old street in this part of the city. The Bowery, extending N. from Chatham Square to East 4th St. (practically continued by Fourth Avenue), is not now a street of commercial importance, being largely taken up with Yiddish tenements. Broadway, in its southernmost part, is a financial and business street; the financial interests centre particularly about Wall Street,' which is about one-third of a mile above the Battery, runs E. from Broadway, and was named from a redoubt built here by the Dutch in 1653 on news of a threatened attack by the English. The wholesale dry goods district is on Broadway and the side streets between Reade and Prince Streets and the wholesale grocery district immediately W. of this. In Maiden Lane is' the wholesale jewelry trade. The leather and hide trade is centred immediately S. of the approaches to the Brooklyn Bridge. A little farther up-town on the East Side is the tenement district, one of the most crowded in the world. The principal shopping districts are on Broadway from 17th Street to 34th Street; on Sixth Avenue from 14th Street to 34t h Street; and to an increasing degree on Fifth Avenue from 23rd Street to 42nd Street, and on the cross-streets in this area, especially 23rd, 34th and 42nd Streets. Next to Broadway the best known of the avenues is Fifth Avenue, which extends from Washington Square to the Harlem river (143rd Street) in a straight line. On Fifth Avenue there are a few residences in its lower part and between 34th and 45th Streets; but N. of 50th and on the E. side of Central Park are many fine residences. The cross streets within one block to the W. and two blocks to the E. of Fifth Avenue, Central Park West, and in general the upper West Side and in particular Riverside Drive, high above the North river, are the newer residential parts of the city.

Parks

The park system in 1908 included property valued at $501,604,188. The principal parks are: Central Park in Manhattan; Prospect Park in Brooklyn (q.v.); and Bronx Park, Van Cortlandt Park and Pelham Bay Park in the Bronx. The first park (as distinguished from " square ") of any size in Manhattan was Central Park (840 acres; between 59th and i Toth Streets and between 5th and 8th Avenues; about 21 m. long and 11 m. wide), which was laid out (beginning in 1857) by F. L. Olmsted and Calvert Vaux. Nearly one-half is wooded, with a variety of native and foreign trees and shrubs. The park contains a large pond, the Mere, in the N.E. corner; the Croton retaining reservoir and the receiving reservoir, and other sheets of water. Near the 65th Street entrance from 5th Avenue is the Arsenal, the executive quarters of the Department of Parks, with a meteorological observatory (1869).

Pelham Bay Park (1756 acres), in the north-easternmost corner of the city, lies on Long Island Sound, includes Hunter's Island and Twin Islands, and has a total shore front of about 9 m. Bordering on the city of Yonkers, S. (from 262nd Street) to 242nd Street, is Van Cortlandt Park (1132 acres), in which are the Van Cortlandt Mansion (1748), for a time Washington's headquarters and now a Revolutionary Museum under the Colonial Dames, a parade-ground (75 acres), and Van Cortlandt Lake, a skating pond. East of Van Cortlandt Park is Woodlawn Cemetery. Mosholu Parkway (600 ft. wide and about 6000 ft. long) leads from Van Cortlandt Park to the S.E., and Bronx and Pelham Parkway (400 ft. wide and 12,000 ft. long) from Pelham Bay Park to the S.W. connecting these parks with Bronx Park (719 acres) on either side of the Bronx river, a small stream which here broadens into lakes and ponds and has a fall at the lower end of the park. Bronx Park reaches from 180th Street to 205th Street.;The northern part is occupied by the New York Botanical Gardens and the southern part by the Zoological Park.

Battery Park is at the southern end of Manhattan; here are the New York Aquarium (in what was until 1896 Castle Garden, on the site of Fort Clinton) and a children's playground (1903). In City Hall Park are the public buildings mentioned below.

The other down-town open spaces are small; many of them are recreation grounds, some, such as Mulberry Bend Park and Hamilton Fish Park, being on the site of former slums, condemned by the city at great expense. Especially in this part of the city municipal recreation piers and free baths have been constructed. Washington Square (1827), between Waverley Place, Wooster and Macdougal Streets, at the foot of 5th Avenue, became a pauper burial-ground about 1797, and was laid out as a park in 1827; on the N. side of the square there are still a few fine old residences. Union Square, between Broadway and 4th Avenue, is a favourite place for workmen's mass meetings. Madison Square is reclaimed swampy ground on which there was an arsenal in 1806-1815, then a parade-ground, and in1825-1839a municipal House of Refuge in the old barracks, and which was then laid out as a park and was a fashionable centre in 1850-1875. Bryant Park on Sixth Avenue, between 40th and 42nd Streets, was a Potter's Field in 1813-1823, and in 1853 was the site of 1 See F. T. Hill, Story of a Street (New York, 1908).

a world's fair with Cr y stal Palace, which was destroyed in 1858. In De Witt Clinton Park between 52nd and 54th Streets on the North river, there was the first children's farm school' in New York. Riverside Park (140 acres; 1872), between 72nd and 129th Streets, on the North river front, is a finely wooded natural terrace with winding paths. Morningside Park (31; acres), between W. Iloth and 123rd Streets, beautifully wooded, and Mount Morris Park (206 acres) from 120th to 124th Streets, interrupting Fifth Avenue, are high rough ground, Mount Morris being the highest point on Manhattan Island.

Among the other parks in the north part of Manhattan Island are: Roger Morris Park, between 160th and 162nd Streets, containing the Roger Morris or Jumel Mansion (1763), Washington's headquarters for five weeks in 1776, then the headquarters of Sir Henry Clinton, and after 1777 of the Hessian officers; High Bridge Park (734 acres) at the Manhattan end of High Bridge, between W. 170th and 175th Streets; Audubon Park between 155th and 158th Streets, from Broadway to the North river, the home in1840-1851of John James Audubon; and Ft. Washington (40 acres) from 171st to 183rd Streets on the North river, the site of Ft. Washington in the War of Independence. Along the W. bank of the Harlem river for about 3 m. N. and N.W. is the Harlem River Driveway (or speedway), about 95 ft. wide. Besides the large parks in the Bronx the more important are Crotona (154.6 acres), and Poe Park (23 acres) on E. 192nd Street, the site of E. A. Poe's Fordham cottage. The great baseball grounds of the National and American leagues furnish amusement to the crowds interested in professional baseball. Coney Island (q.v.), similar resorts on Staten Island, on the shores of the North river and on Long Island on the Sound, and on the Hudson river are popular amusement places.

Buildings

The city's sky-line is broken by the tall business buildings, known as " sky-scrapers," 3 the construction of which was made necessary by the narrowness of the down-town portion of the island in which the increasing business population had to be accommodated. The ten-storey Tower Building (1889; 21 ft. wide; first 9 then II storeys; replaced in1908-1910by a taller and wider building) was the first of these, and was soon followed by much taller ones.

The prominent business buildings include the Singer Sewing Machine Company's Building 4 (612 ft. high, built in1905-1908by Ernest Flagg); the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company's Building (693 ft.; completed in 1909); the Produce Exchange (with a 225-ft. tower); the Manhattan Life Building (with a 360-ft. tower); the Empire Building (20 storeys); on Wall Street, the Drexel Building, the Trust Company of America (23 storeys), and the National City Bank; on Broad Street, the white marble Stock Exchange (1903), the Broad Exchange Building (276 ft. high), and the Commercial Cable Building (317 ft. high); in Cedar Street, the New York Clearing House; in Liberty Street, the New York Chamber of Commerce (1903), built of white marble and granite, with Ionic columns, the Trinity Building (with a Gothic facade) and the United States Realty Building (both by F. H. Kimball), the City Investing Building (32 storeys; 486 ft. high); in Church Street, the Hudson Terminal Buildings (1909, Clinton & Russell), 22 storeys high, with four storeys below ground (including the terminal of the down-town Hudson tunnels), office buildings with a tenant population of Io,000; in Park Row, the Park Row Building (30 storeys; 390 ft. high), and the office building of the World (the Pulitzer Building, with a dome 310 ft. high); the white marble Home Life Insurance Building with its sloping red tiled roof; the Fuller (or " Flatiron ") Building (290 ft. high); and the New York Times Building (363 ft. high) at 42nd Street and Broadway.

The principal public buildings are: the Custom House (1902 1907; by Cass Gilbert), on the site of Fort Amsterdam, built of granite in the French Renaissance style; in Wall Street, the United States Sub-Treasury, on the site of Federal Hall, in which George Washington was inaugurated first president of the United States; and in and about City Hall Park, the Post 2 See Jacob A. Riis, " City Farms and Harvest Dances," in the Century Magazine for September 1909.

1 On the mechanical equipment of the New York " skyscraper " see R. P. Bolton, " High Office Buildings of New York," vol. 143 of Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers (1901). See also Frank W. Skinner, " The Foundation of Lofty Buildings," in the Century Magazine for March 1909.

4 See A History of the Singer Building Construction (New York, 3908), edited by O. F. Semsch. The building's steel columns are carried on pneumatic caisson piers which reach bed rock 90 ft. below the street-level.

Office, the Italian Renaissance City Hall by John McComb, Jr.,1803-1812(architecturally the best of the public buildings); the Court House, the Hall of Records (French Renaissance), and a new Municipal Building with a lantern 559 ft. high, the main building of 23 storeys being pierced by an arcade through which Chambers Street runs; a little farther N. and E. of Broadway, the Tombs (1898-1899), the city prison, connected by a flying bridge called " the Bridge of Sighs " with the Criminal Courts; at Madison Avenue and 25th Street, the elaborate Appellate Court House (J. B. Lord); and on Fifth Avenue (40th-42nd Sts.) the new Public Library (1911). There are several large armouries of the state militia in the city, the best known being those of the 7th, 69th and 71st regiments.

Churches.-Historically the foremost religious denomination in New York City is the Dutch Reformed. The consistory of the Collegiate Church, controlling several churches, is the oldest ecclesiastical organization in the city, dating from 1628, when there was a Dutch church " in the Fort." After the city passed into the hands of the English the Protestant Episcopal Church rapidly increased in power, and in 1705 received the grant of the " Queen's Farm " between Christopher and Vesey streets. This immense wealth is held by the corporation of Trinity Church. Its present building (1839-1846; by R. M. Upjohn) is on the site of a church built in 1696, at the head of Wall Street on Broadway. The bronze doors are a memorial to J. J. Astor, and the altar and reredos, to W. B. Astor. In the churchyard are the graves of Alexander Hamilton, Robert Fulton, Captain James Lawrence, Albert Gallatin, William Bradford, the colonial printer, and General Phil Kearny. Many of the largest Episcopalian churches in the city were founded as its chapels, including St Paul's (1766), the oldest church building in the city. Trinity has several important chapels dependent on it. The Presbyterian Church is relatively stronger in New York than in any other city in the country with the possible exceptions of Philadelphia and Pittsburg. The first Methodist Episcopal society in the United States was formed in New York in 1766 and still exists as the John Street Church. The varied immigration to the city had brought in the other Protestant sects; the large Irish immigration of the first two-thirds of the ,9th century, and the great Hebrew migration of the last part of the same century, made the Roman Catholic and the Jewish denominations strong. The city became the see of a Roman Catholic bishop in 1808 and of an archbishop in 1850. The Roman Catholic Cathedral, St Patrick's (50th-51st Streets; Fifth-Madison Avenues), is the head of the archdiocese of New York; it is the largest and one of the most elaborately decorated churches in the country, designed by James Renwick and erected in 1850-1879, with a Lady Chapel added in 1903. It is in Decorated style and is built principally of white marble. Behind the Cathedral on Madison Avenue is the archiepiscopal residence. The Protestant Episcopal Cathedral of St John the Divine, on 112th Street near Morningside Park, was begun in 1892; the crypt and St Saviour's Chapel were completed in 1910. Other prominent Episcopalian churches are: Christ Church, organized in 1794, the second parish in age to Trinity; St Mark's, an old parish with a colonial church (1829); Grace Church (organized in 1808), since 1844 in a commanding position at Broadway and loth Street, at the first turn in Broadway, with a building of white limestone in Decorated style with a graceful stone spire; the Church of the Ascension (1840) with John La Farge's mural painting of the Ascension, a chancel by Stanford White, and Sienese marble walls and pulpit; and the Church of the Transfiguration (1849), nicknamed " The Little Church around the Corner," and famous under the charge of Dr George H. Houghton (1820-1897) as the church attended by many actors. It has a memorial window to Edwin Booth by John La Farge. Of Presbyterian churches the First (organized in 1719) long occupied a brick church on Wall Street, near the old City Hall, and since 1845 has been on Fifth Avenue between nth and 12th Streets; and the Madison Square Church was organized in 1853, and after 1907 occupied one of the most striking ecclesiastical buildings in the city, in a quasi-Byzantine style, with a golden dome and a facade of six pale green granite Corinthian columns. The First Baptist Church (organized 1762; present building on Broadway and 79th Street) is the oldest and the Fifth Avenue Baptist Church (1841) is the richest society of that denomination in the city; the Memorial Church (1838) is a memorial to Adoniram Judson. The first Congregational Church was built in 1809, but it was soon sold and the congregation disbanded; the Broadway Tabernacle on Broadway, near Worth Street, was a famous church in 1840-1857; the present church is at Broadway and 56th Street. St Peter's (Roman Catholic; 1785) is the oldest Catholic organization in the city; St Patrick's (1815) was formerly the cathedral church, and St Paul the Apostle (Paulist; 18J9; rebuilt 1876-1885, with decorations by John La Farge) was established by Isaac Hecker. There are many Jewish synagogues and temples.

Hotels.-The principal hotels, clubs and theatres of New York City have steadily been making their way up-town. Both hotels and clubs had their origin in the taverns of the 17th and 18th centuries, such as Fraunces's Tavern, on the corner of Pearl and Broad Streets, built in 1719, used as a residence of the De Lancey family, sold in 1762 to Samuel Fraunces (Washington's steward after 1789), who opened it as the Queen's Head or Queen Charlotte, used for a time (1768) as the meeting-place of the Chamber of Commerce, and the scene, in its assembly room, of Washington's farewell to his officers in 1783; it was restored in 1907 by the New York State Society of The Sons of the Revolution, which owns the building. There are now few first-class hotels in the down-town district, the Astor House being the principal exception to the rule that the hotel district is bounded by 23rd and 59th Streets, and by Fourth and Seventh Avenues. With the rapid increase in the value of New York City real estate many apartment-hotels have been built, especially on the upper west side. The most widely-known restaurants are Delmonico's and Sherry's, both at Fifth Avenue and 44th Street.

Clubs.-The clubs of New York are even more important to the social life than those of London, and most of them are splendidly housed and appointed. The oldest of the social clubs is the Union Club, organized in 1836. The Union League Club (organized 1863, incorporated 1865) was formed by members of the U.S. Sanitary Commission, and is the club of the leaders of the Republican party in the city. The Democratic organizations corresponding to it are the Manhattan Club (organized 1865, reorganized in 1877), and the Democratic Club, more closely allied with the local organization of Tammany Hall. The Metropolitan Club was formed in 1891 by members of the Union Club, with which the Calumet Club (1819) also is closely connected. The Knickerbocker Club was founded in 1871 by descendants of early settlers; and the St Nicholas Club by descendants of residents of the city or state before 1785. The University Club (1865, for college graduates only) has one of the handsomest club-houses in the world. Among the special clubs chiefly for writers, artists, actors and musicians, are the Century Association (1847, membership originally limited to 100, devoted to the advancement of art and literature); the Lotus Club (1870, composed of journalists, artists, musicians, actors and " amateurs " of literature, science and fine arts); the Salmagundi Club (1871, artists); the Lambs' Club (1874, " for the social intercourse of members of the dramatic and musical professions with men of the world "); the Players' (1887, actors and authors, artists and musicians), whose building was the gift of Edwin Booth, its founder and first president; the Grolier Club (1884, bibliophiles); the Cosmos Club (1885, members must have read von Humboldt's Cosmos); and the New York Press Club (1872, journalists). The Sorosis (1868) is a women's club, largely professional. Other clubs are the New York Bar Association (1870), the Engineers' Club (1888), the New York Athletic Club (1868), the Racquet and Tennis Club, the New York Yacht Club (1844, incorporated 1865, the custodian of the " America's " cup); and the Riding Club (1883); the Freundschaft Society (1879) and the Deutscher Verein (1874) for Germans; the Army and Navy Club (1889); several Hebrew clubs, notably the Harmonie and the Progress (1864) the Catholic Club of New York, and the clubs of Harvard (1865), Yale, the University of Pennsylvania, Cornell University and Princeton.

Theatres, &c.-The first dramatic performances' in New York City were given in September and December 1732 by a company from London which played at Pearl Street and Maiden Lane; the first playhouse was opened on the 5th of March 1750, but in 1758 became a German Reformed Church; and the second was opened with Rowe's Jane Shore on the 28th of December 1758, but remained a theatre only a little more than six years. What has been called the first New York theatre, opened on the 7th of December 1767 in John Street near Broadway, was the Royal Theatre during the British occupation in the War of Independence, and was destroyed in 1798. In that year was built on Park Row the Park Theatre (burnt 1820; rebuilt 1821; burnt 1848) in which George Frederick Cooke (1810), James W. Wallack (1818) and Junius Brutus Booth (1821) made their American debuts, in which Edmund Kean, Charles Kean, Fanny Kemble and Edwin Forrest played, and in which II Barbiere di Siviglia, the first Italian opera given in the United States, was rendered in 1825, and the first ballet was danced by Fanny Ellsler in 1840. Rivals of the Park Theatre were: the Chatham Garden and Theatre in 1823-1831, and later the Bowery Theatre (opened in 1826; burnt in 1828, 1836, 1838 and 1845; named the Thalia in 1879, when it became a German theatre; and since 1892 Yiddish). Among famous theatres of the 19th century the following may be mentioned: Niblo's Garden (built in 1829; burned in 1846; rebuilt in 1849; destroyed in 1895) was long owned by A. T. Stewart, and after 1866 was the scene of many spectacular shows. Palmo's Opera House (1844-1857) was the home first of Italian opera and. after 1848, under the management of William E. Burton (1802-1860), of comedy. In Mechanics' Hall (1847-1868) E. P. Christy's minstrels, George Christy's minstrels and the Bryant Brothers appeared. The Astor Place Opera House (on the present site of the Mercantile Library; 1847-1854) is best known because of the riot at Macready's appearance on the 19th of May 1849, in which many were killed by the police and militia. Tripler Hall (1850-1867) was built for Jenny Lind's debut but not completed in time. Here Rachel played in 1 See T. Allston Brown, A History of the New York Stage (3 vols., New York, 1903) .

1855, and Patti made her debut in 1859. The hall was managed in 1855 by Laura Keene and in1856-1858by William E. Burton, and in it in 1864 the three Booths played Julius Caesar, and Edwin Booth played Hamlet for one hundred nights. It was burned in March 1867. In Booth's Theatre (1869-1882; managed and afterwards leased by Edwin Booth), Sarah Bernhardt made her American debut (November 1880); and in the Park Theatre (Broadway and 21st Street; 1875-1882) Stuart Robson and William H. Crane first played together. Light opera was first introduced in 1864, opera bouffe in 1867, and Gilbert and Sullivan light opera in 1879; and The Pirates of Penzance was produced in New York before it was seen in London. Most of the older theatres still in existence have become houses of vaudeville, melodrama or moving pictures, as, for example, the Academy of Music (14th Street and Irving Place; opened in 1854), until about 1883 the home of the best opera, in which Christine Nilsson, Parepa-Rosa, Salvini and Emma Nevada made their American debuts. The Broadway (1888) was the scene of Edwin Booth's last performance, as Hamlet, in March 1891. In connexion with the Empire Theatre (1893) is the Empire Dramatic School. The two largest places of amusement are the Madison Square Garden (opened in 1890) and the Hippodrome (Sixth Avenue and 43rd44 th Streets). The principal concert halls are Carnegie Music Hall (1891; built by Andrew Carnegie for the Symphony and Oratorio Societies) and Mendelssohn Hall. The Metropolitan Opera House (1882; burnt 1892; immediately rebuilt) gave in 1884 the first season of German opera in America, under the direction of Leopold Damrosch. The Manhattan Opera House (built in 1903 by Oscar Hammerstein as the Drury Lane) was opened as an opera-house in December 1906. In 1910 grand opera ceased to be given except in the Metropolitan. Grand opera in New York has always been dependent for financial success on season subscriptions, and (like the great museums and the zoological and botanical gardens) has been supported by millionaires. The New Theatre (1909) is practically an endowed house.

Music

Musical societies were formed in the 18th century, an Apollo Society as early as 1750, a St Cecilia Society, which lasted less than ten years, in 1791, and the Euterpean Society, which lived a half century, in 1799. A New York Choral Society was established in 1823, a Sacred Music Society in the same year and a Philharmonic Society in 1824, succeeded in 1828 by the Musical Fund Society. The present Philharmonic Society, composed of professional players, was organized in 1842 by a New York violinist, Uriah C. Hill (d. 1875). In 1847 was formed the Deutscher Liederkranz, which has given much classical German music; a secession from the Liederkranz in 1854 formed the Anion Society, which has been more modern than the Liederkranz, furnished in 1859 the choruses for Tannhauser, the first Wagner opera performed in America, and brought from Breslau in 1871 Leopold Damrosch (1832-1885) as its conductor. He founded the Oratorio Society in 1873 and the Symphony Society in 1877, and was succeeded as conductor of each of these societies by his son Walter (b. 1862). Musical instruction in the public schools has been under the supervision of Frank Damrosch (b. 1859), another son of Leopold, who formed in 1892 the People's Singing Classes, picked voices from which form the People's Choral Union.

Art

Many private collections have been given or lent to the public galleries of the city, in which are held from time to time excellent loan collections. The largest public art gallery is the Metropolitan Museum of Art, for which a committee, including art patrons and members of the National Academy of Design, drew up a plan in 1869, and which was chartered in April 1870. General Luigi Palma di Cesnola became its director in 1879 and was succeeded (1905-1910) by Sir Caspar Purdon Clarke, director of the South Kensington Museum, and in 1910 by Edward Robinson (b. 1858). In April 1871 the legislature appropriated $500,000 for a building for the Museum in Central Park: in 1878 the trustees took possession of the building in a tract of 182 acres in Central Park on Fifth Avenue between Both and 85th Streets; and in March 1880 this building was opened. Additions were made to the south (1888) and the north (1894). In 1902 the central part of the E. front of a new building was opened, and under an appropriation of $1,250,000 in 1904 the building was again enlarged in 1908. Among the benefactors of the Museum have been: its presidents, John Taylor Johnston (1820-1893), Henry G. Marquand (q.v.), who gave it his collection (old masters and English school), and J. Pierpont Morgan, and Miss Catharine Lorillard Wolfe, who gave the Museum $200,000 and her collection of paintings, Jacob S. Rogers (1823-1901) who left the Museum about $5,000,000, Frederick T. Hewitt, who gave more than $1,600,000, and John S. Kennedy (1830-1909), who left it $2,500,000. Besides paintings and statuary the Museum has collections of glass, Egyptian antiques, Babylonian and Assyrian seals and cylinders, tapestries, ancient gems, porcelain and pottery, armour, musical instruments, laces and architectural casts. The New York Historical Society since 1858 has had the collection of the New York Gallery of the Fine Arts; in its art gallery are several examples of Van Dyck and Velazquez, the best collection in the United States (except the Jarves collection at Yale) of the primitives and the early Renaissance of Italy and the Low Countries, and a good American collection, rich in portraits and in the work of Thomas Cole. There is a small collection of paintings with some statuary in the Lenox Library and there are many private collections of note. The National Academy of Design (organized in 1826; incorporated in 1828) has an art library, and students' classes. The Society of American Artists (1877) was a secession from the .Academy which it rejoined in 1906. This Society with the Art Students' League (1875), and the Architectural League of New York (1881) formed in 1889 the American Fine Arts Society. In its building on W. 57th Street there are good galleries, it is the headquarters of the American Water Color Society (1866), the New York Water Color Club, the National Sculpture Society (1893), the National Society of Mural Painters and the New York Chapter of the American Institute of Architects; and the exhibitions of the National Academy of Design and of the Society of American Artists are held here. The National Arts Club and the Municipal Art Society (1893) have club houses in Gramercy Park. The Decorative Art Association (1878) has classes and sales-rooms for women artists. There are art classes at Cooper Union. Columbia University has a School of Architecture (1881).

Municipal Art, Monuments, Statuary, F&c. - The city charter of 1897 established an art commission consisting of the mayor, the president of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the president of the New York Public Library, the president of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, one painter, one sculptor, one architect and three lay members, the last six to be appointed by the mayor from a list presented by the Fine Arts Federation of New York. Without the approval of this commission no work of art can become the property of the city either by purchase or by gift. Whenever requested by the mayor and board of aldermen it must act in a similar capacity with respect to the design of any municipal building, bridge or other structure, and no municipal structure that is to cost more than one million dollars can be erected until it has approved the design. The City Hall contains a valuable collection of portraits. In front of the Custom House are groups symbolical of the continents by D. C. French. The Hall of Records has historic and allegorical statues by Philip Martiny, H. K. Bush-Brown and Albert Weinert. In the Criminal Courts Building are mural decorations by Edward Simmons. The statuary of the Appellate Court House is by T. S. Clarke, K. F. T. Bitter, M. M. Schwartzott, D. C. French, F. W. Ruckstuhl, C. H. Niehaus and others; and it has excellent mural paintings by E. H. Blashfield, Kenyon Cox, C. Y. Turner, H. S. Mowbray and others. Of the city's great monuments the greatest is the tomb (1897; designed by John H. Duncan) of General U. S. Grant (q.v.); this mausoleum is in Riverside Park, commanding the North river, at 122nd Street. In the same park at 90th Street is the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument (1900; C. W. Stoughton, A. A. Stoughton and P. E. Duboy), a memorial to those who fought in the Union army during the Civil War; it has marble and granite stairways leading up to a pedestal on which are twelve fluted Corinthian pillars arranged in a circle and covered with a white marble canopy. On Bedloe's Island in the harbour is the colossal bronze " Liberty Enlightening the World " (F. Bartholdi; dedicated 1886; presented to the people of the United States by the people of France), which is 151 ft. 5 in. from its base to the top of the torch held in the uplifted hand of the female figure. On the N. side of Washington Square at the foot of Fifth Avenue is the granite Washington Arch (1889; by Stanford White) commemorating the hundredth anniversary of the inauguration in New York City of George Washington as first president of the United States. Among other public statues and monuments are: Augustus St Gaudens's W. T. Sherman (1903), an equestrian statue in gilt bronze on a polished granite pedestal in Fifth Avenue at the S.E. entrance to Central Park, his D. G. Farragut (1880; with a granite exedra for pedestal, designed by Stanford White) in Madison Square, and his Peter Cooper (1894), a seated figure on a marble pedestal and beneath a marble canopy (designed by Stanford White) immediately below Cooper Union on the Bowery; F. W. MacMonnies's Nathan Hale (1893) in City Hall Park; J. Q. A. Ward's William Shakespeare (1870), Seventh Regiment Memorial (1873), " Indian Hunter " (1868), and " Pilgrim " (1885) in Central Park, his George Washington (1882) on the steps of the sub-treasury, his Greeley in front of the Tribune building, and his William Earl Dodge (1885) at Broadway and 34th Street; E. Plassmann's Benjamin Franklin (1872) in Printing House Square; Alexander Doyle's Horace Greeley (1890) in Greeley Square; K. F. T. Bitter's Franz Sigel (1907) in Riverside Park at 106th Street, D. C. French's Memorial to R. M. Hunt (1900), a bust with a semicircular granite entablature at Fifth Avenue and 70th Street; and a Columbus Memorial (1894; by Gaetano Russo; erected by the Italian residents), a tall shaft with a statue of Columbus, at 59th Street and Seventh Avenue. There are many other statues in the city, especially in Brooklyn (q.v.) and in Central Park. In Central Park on a knoll S.W. of the Metropolitan Museum stands the Egyptian obelisk, of rose-red Syene granite, the companion of that on the Thames embankment, London, and like it popularly called " Cleopatra's Needle," but actually erected by Thothmes III.; it was presented to the city by Ismail Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, in 1877, was brought to New York at the expense of W. H. Vanderbilt in 1880, and was erected in the park in 1881.

Scientific Collections and Learned Societies

The New York Aquarium in Battery Park has excellent exhibits of marine life; since 1902 it has been under the direction of the New York Zoological Society (organized 1895), a private corporation which has relations with the Park Department and the city like those of the corporations in control of the Botanical Gardens, the Natural History Museum and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Its Zoological Park (opened 1899) forms the southern part of Bronx Park, in which the animals (55 28 individuals, 1146 species-246 mammals, 644 birds and 256 reptiles in 1910) are almost perfectly housed - in large houses, flying cages, pools, dens and ranges. The Botanical Gardens (incorporated in 1891 and 1894), occupying the N. part of Bronx Park, contains two large conservatories (the largest in America), the largest botanical museum in the world (1900), with lecture hall and museum of fossil botany in the basement, a collection of economic plants on the main floor, and a library, herbarium, laboratories, type exhibits of vegetation on the upper floors, and a natural hemlock grove and bog garden, pinetum, herbaceous grounds, flower garden, fruticetum and deciduous arboretum. The American Museum of Natural History was incorporated in 1869, and is governed by a board of trustees. On the ground floor of its building (77th-81st Streets; Eighth - Ninth Avenues) are a lecture hall, meteorites, the Jesup collections of the woods of North America and of building stones, and anthropological and ethnological collections, particularly rich in specimens from the North Pacific region, collected by an expedition sent out by Morris K. Jesup (q.v.). On the main floor are the mammals, insects and butterflies; on the second floor the palaeontological collections, the Cope collection of fossils and (presented by J. P. Morgan)the Bement collection of minerals and the Tiffany collection of gems; and on the top floor are a collection of shells and the library, including that of the New York Academy of Sciences, which was founded in 1817 and incorporated in 1818 as the Lyceum of Natural History, received its present name in 1876, and publishes Annals (1824 sqq.) and Transactions (1881 sqq.). Other learned societies are: the New York Historical Society (founded in 1804 a.nd incorporated in 1809), which has a library rich in Americana, the Lenox collection of Assyrian marbles, and the Abbott collection of Egyptian antiquities; the American Geographical Society (founded in 1852; incorporated in 1854), which issues a Bulletin (1859 sqq.); the American Numismatic Society (1858), with an excellent numismatic library and collection; the American SocietyTof Civil Engineers (1852; with a club house and library); the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1880), which occupies with the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (1871) a building given by Andrew Carnegie; and the New York Academy of Medicine (1847), with a technical library.

Literature

In literature' New York's position in America is largely due to the city's being the home of the principal publishing houses and, as the American metropolis, the home of many authors. Charles Brockden Brown, the first American professional " man-ofletters," although a Philadelphian by birth, was connected with New York City throughout his literary career; after him came the brilliant Knickerbocker school, including Irving, Cooper, Bryant, James Rodman Drake, Fitz Greene Halleck, Charles Fenno Hoffman (who in 1833 established the Knickerbocker Magazine), N. P. Willis, Edgar Allan Poe, J. K. Paulding, George P. Morris and Gulian C. Verplanck. In this early period New York literature centred largely about the Knickerbocker and the Mirror; and in the later period the monthlies Harper's (1850), the Century (founded in 1870 as Scribner' s; present name 1881), and Scribner's (1887) were great literary influences under the editorship of such men as George William Curtis, Josiah Gilbert Holland, William Dean Howells, Henry Mills Alden (b. 1836) and Richard Watson Gilder. Richard Henry Stoddard, Richard Grant White, Bayard Taylor, Edmund Clarence Stedman, H. C. Bunner and John Bigelow are other literary names connected with New York City and with its periodical press. The success of the older magazines has brought into the field lowerpriced monthlies. The oldest religious weekly still published is the New York Observer (1823; Presbyterian); its great editors were Samuel Irenaeus Prime from 1840 to 1885 and afterwards his son-inlaw Charles Augustus Stoddard. Others are the Churchman (1844; Protestant Episcopal), the Christian Advocate (1826; Methodist Episcopal), the Examiner (1823; Baptist), the Christian Herald (1878) famous for its various charities under the control (1892-1910) of Dr Louis Klopsch (1852-1910), the Outlook (founded in 1870 as the Christian Union by Henry Ward Beecher and carried on as a household magazine by Lyman Abbott), and the Independent (1846) after 1870 edited by William Hayes Ward.

The city's cosmopolitan character is suggested by the great number of its newspapers published in other languages than English: in 1905 of all the periodical publications in New York City almost one-seventh (127 out of 893) were printed in languages other than English, 20 languages or dialects being represented. German, Yiddish and Italian newspapers have large circulations, and there are Bohemian, Greek, French, Croatian, Hungarian and Slavonic dailies. To a degree the New York press is metropolitan, also; but the American press is not dominated by the newspapers of New York as the English press is by that of London (see Newspapers: United States). Education. 2 - The Dutch West India Company was bound by its charter to provide schoolmasters. Its first schoolmaster emigrated 1 See Charles Hemstreet, Literary New York, Its Landmarks and Associations (New York, 1903).

See A. Emerson Palmer, The New York Public School (New York, 1905).

in 1633 and his school still exists in the Collegiate School, the property of the Collegiate (Dutch) Reformed Church. Down to the middle of the 17th century the support and control of the schools remained with the Dutch Church. Later the desire of the English to hasten the substitution of the English for the Dutch language in the colony led to an unsuccessful attempt by the colonial government to reserve to itself the appointment of the schoolmasters. An English public school was established in 1705 under an Act of 1702, and in 1710 was first opened in connexion with the Anglican Church. It still exists as the Trinity School. In 1754 King's College, now Columbia University (q.v.), was established; the Dutch Reformed Church made a vain effort to secure control of it, but it became Anglican in its sympathies and its teachers were mostly Loyalists. Before the War of Independence the English language had practically carried the day, and taken possession of the schools and churches. In 1787 the Manumission Society established a free school for negroes, which was incorporated in 1794. A Quaker society (1798), the " Association of Female Friends for the Relief of the Poor," opened a school in 1801, which soon became a school for white girls only; until 1824 it shared in the school fund and it carried on an infant school only from 1824 to 1846. An association known in1805-1808as the Society for Establishing a Free School in the City of New York (afterwards the " Free School Society," and after 1826 the " Public School Society ") opened its first school in May 1806; got an appropriation from the state legislature in 1807; in 1819 brought from England a Lancasterian teacher - for the sake of economy the society's schools had always been conducted under the Lancasterian system with student " monitors " or assistant teachers; until 1826 was largely under the control of the Friends, giving religious instruction; and was supported in part by voluntary contributions, in part by subscriptions from those who desired to share in its management, and in a small degree after 1815 by a contribution from the school fund of the state. For fifty years it did virtually all that was done for popular education in New York City, and for nearly thirty years caused the exemption of the city from the operation of the common-school system of the state; and about 600,000 children passed through its schools.

The Roman Catholic parochial schools opposed the Protestant character of the text-books used in these public schools, and in 1840, followed by Hebrew and Presbyterian schools, attempted in vain to secure a part of the common-school fund. In 1842, as a result of this controversy, the city was brought under the general state system, but the Public School Society retained control of its own schools. The Board of Education opened its first schools in 1843. The right of the Public School Society to put up new buildings was definitely withdrawn in 1848; and in 18J3 the Society was voluntarily dissolved, and its seventeen schools and property (valued at $454,422) were handed over to the city authorities; from its trustees fifteen commissioners were appointed to hold office through 1854, and in each ward where there had been a school of the Society three trustees were chosen. After 1856 the control of the schools was entirely in the hands of the Board of Education. A compulsory education law came into effect in 1875. Since 1874 the Board has controlled a Nautical School, a training ship being lent to the city by the Federal Navy Department. The separate schools for negroes were abolished in 1884; free lecture courses were established in 1888; in 1893 seven kindergarten classes were established, and after 1896 a supervisor of kindergartens was appointed by the Board; and in 1894 a teachers' retirement fund was established, the first in any American city.

In Brooklyn also the early Dutch schools were under the clergy. In 1815 the schools first received a part of the state common-school fund. There were separate district schools until 1843 when a Board of Education was organized.

By the consolidation of 1898 the Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx became a unit for school purposes, the former city Board of Education becoming the School Board for these two boroughs; the former Brooklyn Board remained in control in that borough; and there was a Central Board of Education for the entire city consisting of eleven delegates from the Manhattan and Bronx Board, six delegates from the Brooklyn Board, and one each (the president) from the Richmond Board and the Queens Board. The revised charter of 1901 abolished the borough school boards and established a single board with 46 members (22 from Manhattan, 14 from Brooklyn, 4 from the Bronx, 4 from Queens and 2 from Richmond), and 46 local school boards (distributed as above) of seven members each, who took the place of the former inspectors in Manhattan and the Bronx. In the City Board there is an executive committee of 15 members. The borough superintendents were done away with in 1901; the powers of the city superintendent were increased, and a board of superintendents (the city superintendent and eight associate superintendents) was created. A board of examiners, nominated by the city superintendent and appointed by the Board of Education, supervises examinations taken by candidates for teaching positions, appointments to which are governed by rigid civil service rules. The development of public high schools has been rapid 'since the consolidation. In1909-1910trade schools and schools for the anaemic were established. There is an excellent system of evening and vacation schools.

A Free Academy founded in 1848 for advanced pupils who had left the common schools was empowered to grant degrees in 1854, and in 1866 became the College of the City of New York, with the Board of Education as its Board of Trustees. In 1900 a separate Board of Trustees (nine members appointed by the mayor) was created. Before 1882 no one was eligible for entrance unless he had attended the city's public schools for one year. In 1907 the College removed to new buildings on St Nicholas Heights between 138th and 140th Streets, the old buildings at Lexington Avenue and 23rd Street being used for some of the lower classes of the seven years' course. The retention of the secondary school in connexion with college, although there are now well-equipped public high schools, is one of the anomalies of the New York educational system. In 1871 a Normal School for Girls, since 1910 the Woman's College of the City of New York, was established as a part of the public system. Since 1888 public lectures for adults have been given under the auspices of the Board of Education, usually in school-houses; and in 1899 the Board opened evening recreation centres in school-houses, in which literary, debating and athletic clubs meet. For the charitable schools see § Charities. The oldest institution of higher education is Columbia University (q.v.). New York University was chartered in 1831 as the University of the City of New York, and in 1896 received its present name. The University Council is the corporation; it consists of 32 members, eight going out of office annually. The University Senate has immediate control; it is composed of the chancellor,' two professors of the University College, and the dean and a professor from each of the following schools - law, medicine, pedagogy, graduate and applied science. The work of the collegiate department was begun in 1832; a university building at Washington Square was erected in 1832-1835; a law school, on a plan submitted by B. F. Butler of New York, was established in 1835, a medical school in 1841, the School of Applied Science in 1862, a graduate school in 1886, a school of pedagogy in 1890, a veterinary college (formed by the union of two previously existing schools) in 1899, and a School of Commerce, Accounts and Finance in 1900. In 1894 the College of Arts and Pure Science and the School of Applied Science were removed to a commanding and beautiful site on Washington Heights (about E. 181st Street) above the Harlem river, the schools of law and pedagogy remaining at Washington Square where a Collegiate Division was opened in 1903; in 1895 the Metropolis Law School was consolidated with the University; in 1898 the Bellevue Hospital Medical College became a part of the University school of medicine. On the Washington Heights Campus the principal buildings are the library (1900), around a part of which extends an open colonnade, 500 ft. long, which is known as the Hall of Fame for Great Americans, and in which the names of great Americans (chosen at intervals by the ballots of Ioo prominent educators, historians, &c.) are inscribed on memorial tablets; and Gould Hall, a dormitory, which like the library and the Hall of Fame was the gift of Miss Helen Miller Gould. In1909-1910the University library contained about 65,000 vols. and the law library 22,000, and there were 254 instructors and 4036 students (966 in the School of Commerce and 739 in the Law School).

For Fordham University see Fordham. Other Roman Catholic colleges are: the College of St Francis Xavier (Society of Jesus; opened 1847; chartered 1861); and Manhattan College (Brothers of the Christian Schools; opened 1853; chartered 1863) at Broadway and 131st Street, in the district formerly known as Manhattanville.

Among the technical and professional schools, excluding those of Columbia University and New York University, are: the General Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church (opened 1819; in1820-1822in New Haven; then re-established in New York City), beautifully situated in " Chelsea Village " on a block (Ninth-Tenth Avenues and 20th-21st Streets) given for the purpose by Clement Clarke Moore (1779-1863) 2 in buildings largely the gift of Eugene Augustus Hoffman (1829-1902), dean of the Seminary in 1879-1902, and of his family, who put it on a sound financial basis; the Union Theological Seminary (1836; Presbyterian), which is representative of the most liberal tendencies in American Presbyterianism, especially in regard to text-criticism; the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (1886), chiefly supported by the synagogues of New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore; the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York (1892; see Columbia University); the Cornell University Medical College (1897; see Cornell University); the Eclectic Medical College (1865); the New York Post-Graduate Medical School and Hospital (1882); the New York Polyclinic Medical School and Hospital (1882); the New York Medical College and Hospital for Women (1863); the 1 The chancellors have been: in1831-1839James H. Mathews (d. 1870); in 1839-1850, Theodore Frelinghuysen (d. 1862); in 1852-1870, Isaac Ferris (1798-1873); in 1870-1880, Howard Crosby; in 1881-1891, John Hall; and in 1891-1910, Henry Mitchell MacCracken (b. 1840). Dr Ferris was a minister of the (Dutch) Reformed Church and the three chancellors since his time have been Presbyterian clergymen; but the University is not sectarian.

2 C. C. Moore (1779-1863), son of Benjamin Moore (1748-1816), who was Protestant Episcopal bishop of New York and president of Columbia College in 1801-1811, was professor of Biblical learning in the Seminary in 1821-1850, compiled a Hebrew and English Lexicon (2809) and wrote some poetry including the popular juvenile verses beginning " 'Twas the night before Christmas." New York. College of Dentistry (1865); and the College of Dental and Oral Surgery of New York (1892). Among the normal schools are: the Teachers' College of Columbia University (q.v.); the School of Pedagogy and the kindergarten training school of New York University; the kindergarten training school of Pratt Institute in Brooklyn (q.v.); the Kraus Seminary for Kindergarteners; and the Kindergarten Normal Department of the Ethical Culture School under the Ethical Culture Society. Of the many private secondary schools in New York the oldest are the Collegiate School and Trinity School (see above). The Columbia Grammar School (2764) was originally a preparatory department of Columbia College.

Other educational institutions of a popular character are Cooper Union (q.v.) and the People's Institute 3 (incorporated in 1897), which holds its meetings and lectures in the Cooper Union Building. Its most active promoter and long its managing director was Charles Sprague Smith (1853-1910), who was professor of modern languages at Columbia University in 1880-1891, and in 1896 organized the Comparative Literature Society; he was especially assisted by Richard Heber Newton (b. 1840), a Protestant Episcopal clergyman of broad and radical religious and social views, and by Samuel Gompers. The aim was to supply a " continuous and ordered education in social science, history, literature and such other subjects as time and demand shall determine " and " to afford opportunities for the interchange of thought upon topics of general interest .

to assist in the solution of present problems." The Institute is primarily a free evening school of social science and a forum for the discussion of questions of the day. There are, besides, Sunday evening ethical services, " a people's church," which has attracted much attention, and several " Institute Clubs " of a social nature, some of them for children. The People's Institute organized a censorship of " moving pictures " to which most American manufacturers of these films voluntarily submit. Cheap concerts are given in Cooper Union by the People's Symphony Concert Association in conjunction with the People's Institute.

For the Brooklyn Institute see Brooklyn. The Young Men's and Young Women's Christian Associations have classes, especially for working people.

Libraries

" The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations," was the result of the consolidation in May 1895 of the Astor Library (founded by the bequest of $400,000 by John Jacob Astor; incorporated in 1849; opened in 1854; further endowed by William B. Astor, who gave it about $550,000 and by John Jacob Astor, the younger, who gave it about $800,000 and built the hall in Lafayette Street in which the library, for general reference, was housed until 1911), the Lenox Library (originally the private collection, particularly rich in incunabula, Americana, genealogy and music, of James Lenox (1800-1880), a bibliophile and art amateur, given by him to the city in 1870 and until 1911 housed as a special reference library, in a building, designed by R. M. Hunt, on Fifth Avenue, between 70th and 71st streets), and the Tilden Trust (to which Samuel J. Tilden left his private library and about $4,000,000 (most of his estate) for the establishment of a public library, but which, owing to a contest by the heirs, was unable to secure the entire bequest and received only about $2,000,000 from one of the heirs). In1902-1911a new building was erected to house these collections. With the Public Library the New York Free Circulating Library (incorporated in 1880; re-incorporated in 1884) was consolidated in 1901; and in the next two years several other free libraries, including one for the blind. In 1901 Andrew Carnegie gave more than $5,000,000 for about 65 branch libraries, the city to furnish sites for them and maintain them. The largest and best equipped of the college libraries is that of Columbia University. The library of Cooper Union has a complete set of patent office reports and files of newspapers. The Mercantile Library (1820; established by an association of merchants' clerks) is a subscription library at Astor Place; the New York Society Library 4 (on University Place) is a subscription library, the oldest in the city, being the outgrowth of a